Friday, May 6, 2011
Wednesday, April 6, 2011
ONE REASON WHY I DO " BALI FOREST OF WISDOM PROJECT"
Here is one reason why I do, BALI FOREST OF WISDOM and believe it will be safe my Island...my ancestor Land from White Money Greediness,
One Article of TIMES MAGAZINE 01 April 2011.
The annual monsoon transforms Bali. Rain sweeps across slumbering volcanoes. Moss thickens on ancient temple walls. Rivers swell and flush their trash and frothing human waste into the sea off Kuta Beach, the island's most famous tourist attraction, where bacteria bloom and the water turns muddy with dead plankton. "It happens every year," shrugs Wayan Sumerta, a Kuta lifeguard, who sits with his love-struck Japanese girlfriend amid dunes of surf-tossed garbage. So why, in early March, did the Bali authorities warn tourists that swimming there for over 30 minutes could cause skin infections? The lifeguard tenderly strokes his girlfriend's naked leg. "I guess some people just have sensitive skin," he says.
Itchy ocean? Just add it to Bali's growing list of seemingly intractable problems: water shortages, rolling blackouts, uncollected trash, overflowing sewage-treatment plants and traffic so bad that parts of the island resemble Indonesia's gridlocked capital Jakarta. And don't forget crime. In January, amid a spate of violent robberies against foreigners, Bali police chief Hadiatmoko reportedly ordered his officers to shoot criminals on sight. You've heard of the Julia Roberts movie Eat Pray Love, which was partly filmed in Bali? Now get ready for its grim sequel: Eat Pray Duck. (Read about Bali's travel boom.)
Most of Bali's woes stem from a problem that rival resorts would love to have: too many tourists. In 2001, the island welcomed about 1.3 million foreign visitors. Ten years later — and despite bombings by Islamic extremists in 2002 and 2005 that killed 222 people, mostly Australian tourists — the island expects almost twice that number. And there are millions of Indonesian visitors too.
Hotels, shopping centers and restaurants are springing up everywhere to accommodate them. The cranes looming over Kuta are building at least three malls and a five-star hotel. But the less glamorous stuff — roads, power lines, sewers, parking spaces — often remains an afterthought. "The infrastructure is not keeping up with the development," says Ron Nomura, marketing director at the Bali Hotels Association. The island's lack of reservoirs, he says, is a case in point. "Can you believe there is this much rain and we don't have enough water?" (See "The Best of Asia 2010.")
When it comes to Bali, newspaper editors have a seemingly bottomless stock of "Paradise Lost?" headlines. Its rich Hindu culture is so distinctive that many people mistake the island for a separate country rather than a province of the world's most populous Muslim nation. That Bali's tourism industry has survived terrorism attacks and a global recession is a cause for pride. But amid unchecked growth and a creaking infrastructure, it is also a source of complacency. "It's like Bali is slowly committing suicide," says local journalist Wayan Juniarta.
Bali's Governor I Made Mangku Pastika knows it. In January, he issued a moratorium on new construction in certain built-up areas, and later warned that his lush birthplace might turn into a "dry land full of concrete buildings." Pastika is popular — he investigated the bombings as Bali's then police chief — but his moratorium isn't. "Some people says he's trying to slow down Bali's growth," says Nomura. "That's not necessarily true. What he's looking for is more responsible growth."
He probably won't find it. Nobody I talked to reckoned that Pastika's measures would influence who built what where. Bali's spiritualism might be a bewildering blend of Hinduism, Buddhism and animism, but the island's planning code is simple: if you build it, they will come.
And on the way, they'll get stuck in traffic. Complaining about the congestion around the airport or in tourist areas like Kuta is now one of Bali's newest pastimes. Even in Ubud, the seat of the island's art and culture, once sleepy streets are clogged with buses carrying Chinese tourists, who visit the island in ever greater numbers. Vehicle ownership on Bali is rising at an annual rate (12.42%) that far outstrips the growth in new roads (2.28%), according to government statistics. "Traffic will get worse and worse," I Made Santha, Bali's traffic chief, predicted in February.
Equally damaging to Bali's prestige is the perception among some expatriates that the island is increasingly unsafe. Lusiana Burgess, the 46-year-old Indonesian wife of a retired British pilot, was robbed and killed in her North Kuta home earlier this year and her murderer remains at large. An Australian woman awoke in her villa to be gagged and assaulted by four thieves. Then an American man was stabbed during another robbery attempt in Kuta. A week after that, police arrested and — following an apparent escape attempt — shot dead 34-year-old M. Syahri, from the neighboring island of Lombok, who was suspected of robbing a number of foreigners.
The statistics actually show a slight decrease in serious crime from 2009 to '10. But Chris Wilkin, a former oil-company executive from the U.K. who retired in Bali six years ago, remains uneasy. "It was very quiet when I moved here," he says. "It wasn't a big attraction for the criminal classes. Now, with the boom, word has got round that there are easy pickings to be had."
Wilkin, whose Indonesian wife rents villas to expats and knew Burgess, believes the threat of violent robbery will discourage foreigners from leasing properties in remote places. Investing in CCTV, intrusion alarms and bedside panic buttons may only "give a false sense of security," he says. Recently, Wilkin accidentally set off his burglar alarm. Nobody went to investigate, not even the private security guards in his own complex. (Read "Indonesia Arrests Cleric Linked to Bali Bombings.")
Expat anxiety hasn't dented Bali's popularity among its core visitors, the Australians. And why should it? Officially, the Australian government still advises its citizens to "reconsider your need to travel" to Bali due to a "very high threat of terrorist attack," yet more than a hundred flights arrive from Australia every week. The dangers to new arrivals are those commonly faced by tourists everywhere: dodgy food, motorbike accidents, and — as a sign at my Kuta hotel suggests ("No Jumping from Any Balcony into Pool Is Permitted") — beer-fueled misadventure.
A new terminal at Bali's shabby airport is due for completion in 2013. But unless other infrastructure is improved, this will serve only to channel yet more tourists onto a critically overburdened island. For now, however, such doubts are largely forgotten in the rush to cash in on the Bali boom. "Goodness shouts, evil whispers," runs an overused Balinese proverb. But money talks.
Monday, March 28, 2011
BAMBOO GILA
And why do I think bamboo is so fabulous? Well, it just so happens bamboo is the fastest growing plant on the planet and its uses are vast. It’s naturally anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and hypo-allergenic, can be grown without herbicides and pesticidescritical element in the production of oxygen
and is a
HOW TO PLANT BAMBOO ON THE ISLAND OF BALI
The Indonesian island of Bali is an ideal environment for growing bamboo, with its tropical climate and high humidity. Bamboo is a spectacularly fast-growing, renewable resource for construction materials, handcrafts, food and even medicine. There are over 1,000 species of bamboo, but most are one of two basic types: bamboo that spreads through runners, and bamboo that grows in clumps. Contact the Environmental Bamboo Foundation to learn where to obtain bamboo seedlings, culms and rhizomes, and which types will grow best in your part of Bali.
Instruction:
Plant running bamboo if you want the plants to spread and multiply rapidly. Plant clumping bamboo for slower-growing ornamental and landscape installations. If you wish to plant from seed, start the seeds indoors to prevent wildlife from harvesting them. Sow in small peat pots and keep moist and well lit until they germinate, in three or more weeks, depending on the variety.
- Put on gloves and cultivate the area you wish to plant with a shovel to a depth of about four inches. Bali's rich, wet, volcanic soil is easy to work. Dig in areas that receive full sun for most of the day, especially on hillsides or the border of your property if erosion control or a barrier is needed.
- Plant 4-inch high running bamboo seedlings 18 inches apart in rows several feet apart. Getting the seedling in is as simple as pushing the rhizome into the soil, tamping it down with your foot, and moving on.
- Space clumping bamboo 12 inches apart, because it will grow and fill in far more slowly than the running varieties.
- Water thoroughly when you are finished planting the area. Continue watering every week during Bali's dry season, from March to August. You need not water at all during the rest of the year, as it will rain almost every day during the wet season.
Tips & Warnings
To grow structural bamboo for building a house in Bali, plant Dendrocalamus asper or Guadua agustfolia, which have the have the tensile strength of low-grade steel.
Bamboo may be planted at any time of year in Bali's tropical climate, but be sure to keep seedlings watered during the dry season.
Bamboo Reforestation
Situated between Mt. Abeng and Mt. Agung, Desa Ban is still dealing with the aftermath of Mt. Agung’s 1963 eruption. Surrounded by harshly sloping lands comprised of arid, volcanic ash, the community’s lands face an uphill battle towards reforestation; agro-forestry and the growth of environmentally-sound business programs that will help improve the environment and the lives of the locals. Bamboo is one of the fastest growing plants in the world, and on top of that it is the best known method of carbon sequestration. We have taught the locals the importance of bamboo, and all of the benefits that can derived from it. Bamboo is one of the best and most reliable construction materials in the world. It grows fast enough that one can harvest and replant bamboo without depleting its supply, and the strength of the material can rival that of low grade steel. With the help of Linda Garland, one of the leading bamboo experts in the world, we have taught the people in the surrounding villages how to plant bamboo, harvest it in order for the carbon to remain sequestered in its roots, and use it for various building projects ranging from huts to houses.
Vetiver Grass
Vetiver is a fast growing clump grass with sterile seeds that make it impossible for the plant to spread like a weed. With a dense and deep root system (penetrates up to 3 meters below the ground surface) it is able to prevent against erosion and landslides. Through this function vetiver has also enabled the building of protected roads, fortification of fertile farmland, and flood protection. Beyond this Vetiver acts as a purifying agent, improving soil fertility and water quality, and is one of the most effective natural methods of carbon sequestration. Vetiver is also harvested in a variety of ways that can provide building materials and crafts that can be sold to help stimulate the local economy.
Vetiver handicraft “bag/basket” training course:
We have brought in the world’s top vetiver grass handicraft trainers from Thailand to educate a collection of the Ekoturin staff, school teachers, and village leaders so that they could then pass on this information.
Production of dried Vetiver grass clothing, bags, hats, and furnishings for local businesses and cooperatives:
After teaching the local community various items that can be made from the roots of vetiver grass we are now helping them to market the products locally and eventually will start to market internationally.
For more information on the qualities and benefits of vetiver grass please visit the “Indonesian Vetiver Network” page on our website.
Biogas
Cow manure is collected and mixed with water in a large metal drum. This mixture will quickly start to ferment, releasing methane gas. The gas is transferred from the metal drum into a rubber inner-tire tubing and the people in our villages then use the biogas to serve the same cooking and heating functions as regular propane gas.
Planting:It is important that:
- roots do not dry out in transit; drying may be avoided by placing them in the shade or covering them with straw or mats;
- shaking does not injure the attachment between rhizome and culm;
- the rhizome buds are not injured; and
- the ball of earth remains unbroken.
Spacing:
The proper number of plants is about 400 per hectare. If the plants are planted in a grid, the spacing between them is about 5 metres.
Depth:
Replant at the same ground line as before. The part formerly above ground is usually green while the underground part is yellow. Place new plants so that the rhizomes run at right angles to the slope and are horizontal. This is the normal way that rhizomes grow.
Fertilizer:
Fertilizer is important during transplanting to increase the vigour of the rhizomes. It can be placed in the hole near the rhizomes. A shovel-full of well rotted stable manure, a handful of chemical fertilizer will give new plants a good start. After this initial treatment, follow the fertilizing guide given for clumping species in the previous section.
Back Filling:
Back fill the planting hole with top soil using a stick to push soil into any spaces left around the rhizomes. Next, step lightly on the ground around the culms. Sometimes water is applied to settle the soil around the rhizomes, but this may not be necessary with a plant which has the original soil bound by its roots.
Bamboo that have been stored for a long time after digging, plants whose roots have begun to dry out, those which have a small root ball or that are transplanted in a dry season should be planted into very wet soil. Fill the bottom of the hole with water, add soil and stir to make mud. Place the bamboo plant in the hole and add more water until the hole is filled. Top up the soil leaving a shallow pan to accept water.
Mulching:
All transplanted bamboos should be mulched with 15 to 20 cm depth of hay or straw to a diameter of about 2 metres. Spread soil on top of the hay or straw, covering it. This protects the gro
Increasing the Grove Area by Extension of the Rhizomes:
Bamboo rhizomes spread into well-watered and fertile or loamy soil. This characteristic can be used to expand the grove into adjacent plots.
Excavate to 45 cm depth in a belt about 60 cm wide next to the side of the plot which is selected for expansion of the grove. Place compost or stable manure in the trench. Refill with soil and cover with a mulch of hay or straw about 20 cm deep. Instead of using mulch it is possible to grow cover crops of lupins or vetches. The rhizomes spread about 2 m a year. Whether or not shoots have emerged on a prepared area, keep on preparing successive adjacent belts each year immediately after the emergence of the shoots. Needless to say, only well nourished bamboos will extend their rhizomes rapidly, so it is quite important to properly fertilize the grove.
und from drying, controls soil temperature and checks the growth of weeds.
ReGrove Management:
After about 7 years an equilibrium is reached where the number of new culms left each year equals the number harvested. For example, suppose there are 120 culms in a grove, and culms are harvested when they are six years old. There will be 20 culms of each age from one to six years old. In Spring, 20 of the new shoots are allowed to grow into new culms. In Autumn the 20 six year old culms are harvested and the garden is back to its original 120 culms.
A highly fertilised grove produces large culms with many branches and leaves. Because of the widely spaced culms wind damage to the rhizomes at the base of the culms is likely. To avoid this damage the culms should be topped. Topping also allows more sunshine to reach the ground promoting early shoot emergence.
The best time to top is just after the lowest 2 or 3 branching nodes have extended their branches and the upper branches are still enclosed in the sheaths. Count 12 nodes up from the lowest branches, and cut off the culm above it. Always cut the culm cleanly. Breaking it will cause ragged splits and provide entry points for disease.
ad more:How to Plant Bamboo on the Island of Bali | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_6609546_plant-bamboo-island-bali.html#ixzz1HsZR6Hfu
BAMBOO FOR YOU
Growing bamboo cuttings is one of our favorite bamboo propagation methods because it's fast, simple, economical, and it doesn't require a lot of space.
Thick-walled bamboo species such as Guadua Angustifolia have prominent primary branches. These branches can be extracted without damaging the mother clump and are an excellent planting material.http://www.guaduabamboo.com/growing-bamboo-cuttings.html#ixzz1HsUz2rLI
Sunday, March 27, 2011
BENDING STRENGTH OF GUADUA BAMBOO
INBAR Working Paper No. 3
BENDING STRENGTH OF GUADUA BAMBOO
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TESTING PROCEDURES
R. GNANAHARAN
Kerala Forest Research Institute, India
JULES J. A. JANSSEN
OSCAR ARCE*
Technical University of Eindhoven, Netherlands
(*Presently at Costa Rica Institute of Technology, Costa Rica)
Kerala Forest Research Institute, India
International Network for Bamboo and Rattan
and
International Development Research Center, Canada
FOREWORD
In the context of diminishing natural resources, bamboo has emerged as a viable alternative to wood, not only on account of its quick renew ability, but its unique properties also - both physical and mechanical. Its potential as an engineering material is therefore receiving increasing attention.
To exploit its potential as an engineering material on an enduring basis, architects, engineers and users will need to be convinced of its suitability via Standards - national and international, building codes, etc. Although the structure and properties of a large number of bamboo species have been investigated, the information has largely remained restricted in its importance to biologists only. As methods of testing bamboo for its strength properties have not been standardized, the wealth of information on properties already available cannot be utilized to promote engineering applications. This was forcefully articulated in the Cochin International Bamboo Workshop (1988) and as a follow up, the International Development
Reseach Center (IDRC) coordinated with the Technical University of Eindhoven (TUE), Netherlands and brought out the annotated bibliography on bamboo as an engineering material (1991). In the Chiangmai Workshop (1991). the immediate need to develop Standards and Building Codes was stressed. This study is a beginning in that direction.
This intensive investigation, although confined to a new world bamboo species viz Guadua angusttfoha from Costa Rica in respect to just one important property, i.e., bending strength, has helped in confirming that strength values vary significantly depending on the form (round or split), span and position of skin surface of test specimens. Hence, it is clear that apart from parameters like age, moisture content, position in culm, distribution of node,etc., standardization of form, span and position of skin surface of the test procedures which will ensure replication of results, comparison of values and reliability in engineering applications.
This study is the result of collaborative effort between the Technical University of Eindhoven, Netherlands and Kerala Forest Research Institute, India. My sincere thanks to Prof. Jules J.A. Janssen, a long time adviser to IDRC in bamboo research, for making this collaborative study possible and to Dr. R. Gnanaharan for undertaking the research.
Cherla B. Sastry
Program Director, INBAR
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS *
Sincere thanks are due to the International Development Research Center, Canada (IDRC) for sponsoring the first author to study at the Technical University of Eindhoven, the Netherlands (TUE), 12 April-14 May 1993. Our sincere appreciation is due to Dr. Cherla B.Sastry, Principal Programme Officer, IDRC, for his keen interest in the collaborative study and his active support.
The Board of the TUE willingly provided free office space and laboratory and technical assistance to the first author.
Sincere appreciation is due to Dr. S. Chand Basha, Former Director, Kerala Forest Research Institute (KERI) and the Executive Committee of KFRI for allowing the first author to undertake the study.
The bending tests could not have been carried out without the able assistance of Mr. Eric Wyen, Research Assistant. Mr. Huub Donders, Carpenter, helped in the preparation of test specimens of split bamboo. Mr. Ben Elfrink, Photographer, processed all the photographs within a tight deadline. Mr. Sip Overdyk, Head of the Laboratory, provided all the needed assistance. Our sincere appreciation goes to all of them.
Valuable statistical advice was given by Dr. K. Jayaraman of KFRI. Mrs. C. Sunanda and Mr. V. Sreekumar helped in carrying out the analysis and the latter also helped in arriving at the prediction models.
Ms. P.K. Sugatha Dcvi diligently did the word-processing. Mr. K.K. Ramakrishnan and Mr. V. Asokan ably handled the DTP work.
SUMMARY
Bamboo, the fastest growing woody plant, has attracted the attention of not only biologists but also engineers and architects. Strength data are lacking for most species. Even available data are difficult to compare because different testing procedures have been used by different authors. Standardizing the testing procedures is essential to eventually arrive at a Bamboo Building Code. Towards this objective, a collaborative study between the Kerala Forest Research Institute, India (KFRI) and the Technical University of Eindhoven, the Netherlands (TUE) was undertaken.
Straight, large diameter culms of Guadua angustifolia were used in the study. Different types of test specimens were evaluated. Round, long specimens were subjected to 4-point bending tests with a span of 3000 mm while round, short specimens to 3-point bending tests with a span of 700 mm. Split specimens were subjected to 3-point bending, and half the number of specimens was tested with skin surface in tension and the other half with skin surface in compression. Strength properties like modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) were determined and the data were analyzed statistically. Salient findings of the study are given below:
MOR and MOE values obtained from the tests using three different types of specimens (round, long; round, short; split) are significantly different from each other.
Bending tests of round, short specimens with span length in the order of 700 mm do not reflect the actual potential of bamboo. In short-span testing, the specimens are not subjected to true bending.
Density and outer diameter, in combination, can be successfully used in predicting the MOR and MOE of long specimens (R2 values of 0.994 and 0.989 respectively). This needs to be confirmed by carrying out tests on long specimens of different bamboo species of large, medium, and small diameter.
The strength values of long members are evaluated by the 4-point test but this is cumbersome. This report shows that using some physical properties, strength can be predicted. This needs to be tested in other species.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bamboo is a versatile fast growing species. It attains its full length in 2 to 3 months, its maturity in 2 to 3 years. Though it occurs in different parts of the world, it is found in abundance in most of the Asian countries. Because of its ready availability, easy workability and high strength-weight ratio it plays a vital role in the rural economy of these countries.
Bamboo has been used for centuries for a variety of purposes including material for low-cost housing.
For bamboo to be used as an engineering material in structural applications, strength data have to be generated. With the renewed interest in bamboo for structural applications, the commonly used bamboos in different countries have been evaluated for strength.
However, different test procedures have been used by different authors and therefore comparison of results is not possible.
One of the earliest works carried out on the strength of bamboo was by Meyer and Ekelund (1924). They tested bamboo under 3-point bending with a span of 1800 mm and 2100 mm and, under 4-point bending with a span of 2100 mm. The tests were conducted by placing specimens on supports consisting of angle irons and by hanging a platform at loading point and loading with 20 pounds [about 9 kg] scrap iron at every stage. Mr. H.K. Chow commented "Evidently any comparison of results would be of little value if the character of specimen and method of testing are not clearly stated. The results can be divided into two main classes, viz, those on bamboo strips and those on bamboo poles. I am of the opinion that where a comparison of results is to be made, the strip of bamboo should always be used.
These can be easily tested in accurate testing machines, and conditions of testing can thus be standardized. At present conditions governing tests are so variable that we naturally expect great variations in results, to say nothing of the non-homogeneity of the material itself. One may question what is the use of testing a strip of bamboo while in practice poles are always used. The answer is that, by testing strips, we are enabled to know the relative strength of one species from the other, and by applying a factor, after a long series of tests, the results of tests on strips can be appropriated for the whole pieces of bamboo.
No study has been reported in the literature comparing the results of split specimens with those of poles. When Espinosa (1930) conducted tests on short length round bamboo (1500mm span) and split specimens (300mm), no attempt was made to relate the two results. Atrops (1969) conducted 4-point bending tests on full culms (3600 mm span) and split specimens (300 mm). He also did not relate these results.
Limaye (1952) tested bamboo in a systematic way, with a statistical design, to understand the effect of drying, age, disposition of node and position along the length of the culm.
However, all the tests were carried out on small specimens only. Heck (1950) and Limaye (1952) followed as far as possible the USA ASTM Standard (ASTM D 143) for small clear specimens of wood with some modifications.
Based on the work of Umaye (1952) and Sekhar and Rawat (1956). an Indian Standard was formulated for testing bamboo in round form with a span of 700 mm (BIS, 1973). It is good to recall that small clear specimens of wood are tested with 700 mm span. Later, another standard was brought out for testing bamboo in split form (BIS, 1976). However, these two standards did not attach importance to relating the results from the two testing procedures. Also, there is no standard available for testing bamboo in longer lengths.
As different bamboo species have different diameters and wall thicknesses, for relative comparison purposes, testing bamboo in split form would be more appropriate than testing bamboo in round form in short span. Reports comparing tests of split specimens with those of short, round specimens of the same species are few. Recently, Shukla et al. (1988) reported such comparisons for three species.
Some workers have tried to relate strength with physical properties (see Espiloy, 1987;Shukia et al., 1988) and anatomical properties (see Liese, 1987; Abd. Latif et al., 1990). However, unless we standardize the testing procedures, relating strength values with either physical properties or anatomical properties will not lead us anywhere, as we see wide variations in the reported results.
This study was carried out at the Bamboo Laboratory of the Pieter van Musschenbroek Laboratorium of the TUE during April-May 1993. The study was limited to bending tests.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Mature cuims of Guadva angustifo1ia from Costa Rica were used in the study. Collection details of these cuims were not known and they were already cut to lengths of about 5 to 6 in1. These culms had been stored in a room at the Bamboo Laboratory, maintained at 70% RH. From a population of about 200 culms, apparently sound culms without any insect or fungal attack, cracks and crookedness were marked and from these 14 culms were randomly selected. These culms were serially numbered; length, outer diameter at base, middle and top of the culms2 measured; number of internodes noted; and, weight determined.
The middle portion of each culm3 was first tested in bending under 4-point loading with a total span of 3000 mm in such a way that the bottom-most and top-most portions of the cuims were not stressed. Afterwards the unstressed portions from the base and top of these 14 culms were cut and removed. These 28 specimens4 were tested in bending under 3-point loading with a span of 700 mm . After the tests were executed on the 28 extreme specimens, the bottom-most and top-most portions were cut and removed. Splits taken from the upper portions were tested by loading with the outer skin surface in compression in a 3-point bending and the bottom portions with the skin surface in tension. This is graphically illustrated in Figure 1.
2.1 Round, long specimens
For round, long specimens(RL), 4-point loading was chosen rather than 3-point loading.In 4-point bending, the central part is free from transverse forces and is subject to a constant pure bending moment.
Rollers were used at the supports, and the specimens were kept on the supports of the bending machine and were allowed to settle down to a position of equilibrium. A line was drawn to identify the upper middle longitudinal axis of the specimen, for posterior identification.
Load was applied through a loading head and the load was transferred to two points,1000 mm apart, through a loading wooden block (Plate 1, Fig. 2). The specimen was supported on small saddles. Loading saddles were used as well so that load could be transferred to the nearby nodes (Plate 1, Fig. 3). (The distance from the loading point to the nodes was noted.)
This arrangement helped in preventing the specimens from getting crushed at the loading points and from failing due to shear stress. This allowed the specimens to take load in a manner closer to true bending.
The load was applied gradually, to about 40% of the maximum load, and then it was released to about 10%. This enabled the specimen to "settle down". Then loading was continued until failure. An LVDT (Linear Variable Displacement Transducer) was used for measuring the displacement at the middle of the specimen. A data acquisition system (AUTOLOG 2005 Datalogger system; AUTOLOG Input Unit Series 502 of Peekel Instruments B.V.) was used to record the data on force and displacement.
The nature of failure of each culm, whether due to shear stress or crushing or tangential strain perpendicular to the grain, place of failure, etc. were noted.
2.2 Round, short specimens
The round, short specimens from base (RSB) and top (RST) were tested under 3-point loading with a span of 700 mm. This testing mode has been suggested by Indian Standard (BIS, 1973) and it is the only standard available on testing round bamboo. The same testing mode was adopted here for the sake of comparison and validation.
Here, half the specimens (RSB 0 1-07; RST 0 1-07) were tested with loading on a node and the rest on internode. The tests were carried out in a Universal Testing Machine (Schenck Trebel M 1600, 100 kN capacity) (Plate 1, Fig.4). The rate of deformation was kept at 6.5 mm/mm. Both the supports had rollers. Small saddles and steel plates of 10 mm thickness were placed between the support rollers and the specimen. Load was applied through an iron plate and a loading saddle as well (Plate 1, Fig.5). The deformation was measured by a 'Mitutoyo' Digimatic Indicator with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The force and deformation were recorded by the datalogger system. The nature of failure was observed and noted.
2.3 Split specimens
The Indian Standard (BIS, 1976) suggests positioning the outer skin of the specimens in tension while loading. It was decided to see whether there was any difference between keeping the outer skin surface in tension or in compression while loading. The split specimens from the upper periphery of the culms (from base, SBT; from top, SliT) were tested with the outer skin in compression. The split specimens from the bottom periphery of the culms (from base, SBB; from top, STB) were tested keeping the outer skin in tension.
The Indian Standard (BIS, 1976) suggests keeping the width of the specimen at least equal to twice the thickness. This is possible for thin-walled bamboos. However, when the wall thickness is very high, if we take width at twice the thickness, the specimen will no longer be rectangular in cross-section.
In wood, span length-thickness ratio has a significant effect on bending strength (Madsen, 1992). Split specimens are more like solid wood and this was kept in mind in arriving at the span length. Depending on wall thickness, the width of specimens had to be varied so that the specimens had more or less rectangular cross-section. To take care of the stability problem during loading, span length was chosen as shown in Figure 6.
Depending on the configuration, corresponding span length was determined for each specimen. A span length of 140 mm was selected to represent calculated values ranging from 100-170 mm, and 210 mm to represent values ranging from 180-300 mm. So, there were two span lengths depending on width and thickness of the specimens.
The tests were carried out in the Schenck Trebel M 1600 Universal Testing Machine. The rate of loading was maintained at 6.5 mm/mi An LVDT with a range of 40 mm and a resolution of 20 mm! 100,000 steps was used for measuring the deflection. The force and deformation were recorded by the datalogger system.
As the internode length is very short at the base of the culms, most of the specimens had nodal portion. No attempt was made to keep the nodal portion away from the loading point. Most of the specimens from the cuim top did not have nodal portion as the internode length was large enough. The nature of failure in each test was noted.
2.4 Moisture content, density
A small piece (ring in the case of round specimens) was collected from each specimen near the point of failure for the determination of moisture content and density. Moisture content was determined by oven-dry method and volume was determined by water -displacement method, not taking absorption into account, as experience has shown that absorption is negligible.
2.5 Data analysis
Emphasis is given to the statistical relationships between variables, with the aim of finding an easy way of determining mechanical properties. No attempt is made to explore the mechanical meaning of the findings. From this point of view, the research reported here is descriptive.
Different properties such as modulus df rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), density and wall thickness were analyzed statistically. Paired t-tests were run to see the relationships between specimens from the base and top of the same culrns; between long and short round specimens of the same culms, etc. One-way ANOVA were run to see the difference between span length (in split specimens) and mode of testing (skin surface in tension or compression in split specimens; loading on node or internode in round, short specimens),etc.
Correlations between physical and mechanical properties were determined. Multiple linear regressions were run to see which factors would predict MOR and MOE efficiently.
Relationships between round long, round short specimens and split specimens were analyzed to observe size effects.
3. RESULTS
The physical characteristics of the bamboo cuims are given in Table 1. Some of the culms were heavy (9.00-10.53 kg) and some were light (5.03-6.64 kg). This mostly depended on which portion of the original culms the test pieces came from. This was also reflected in the wall thickness (Table 2), and outer diameter (Table 1). The number of internodes ranged from 15 to 23. In general, density increased and wall thickness decreased from base to top along the test culms (Fig. 7). The average moisture content of the test specimens was 11.4 %. Variation in moisture content was minimal. This was mainly because the culms had attained equilibrium moisture content uniformly.
3.1 Round, long specimens
While testing the first specimen (RL 09), it failed prematurely due to a loading saddle problem. Also, data were not logged due to oversight while testing cuim RL 01. For the remaining 12 specimens, MOR5 and MOE were calculated and these are given in Table 3.
The correlation coefficients (r) for the various relationships are given in Table 4. Even though MOR and MOE were positively correlated to density, the r-values are low and not significant. Hence, multiple regressions were run to see whether combinations of these variables could produce suitable models, with lines passing through origin. Even though, individually, density did not explain the variation adequately, in combination with outer diameter, good prediction models could be obtained (Table 5). These models explain 99.4% (R2 = .994) of the variation in ultimate strength and 98.9% (R2 = .989) of the variation in MOE.
3.2 Round, short specimens
Except for 3 specimens, RST 05, RST 09 and RST 13, which had problems at the time of loading, data were recorded for 25 specimens. MOR5 and MOE were determined and the values are recorded in Table 6. When a paired t-test was conducted, it was seen that MOR values of specimens from base (58.4 N/mm2) were significantly higher (p=O.O5) than those of specimens from top (51.7 N/mm2) of the cuims (Table 7). However, there was no significant difference in MOE values of specimens from base (7555 N/mm2) and iop (7565 N/mm2).
A one-way ANOVA test was run to see whether there was significant difference between the modes of loading on node or internode. As seen in Table 7, MORvalues of specimens tested on node (63.5 N/mm2) was significantly higher (p0.Ol) than when tested on internode (44.2 N/mm2). However, no significant difference was noticed in MOE values between node (7948 N/mm2) and internode (6679 N/mm2).
There was very poor correlation between density and MOR, and density and MOE
As was done for long specimens, multiple linear regressions were run to see whether MOR and MOE can be predicted. When all the three physical properties, density, wall thickness and outer diameter, were used as independent variables, it was found that high R2 values could be obtained. Suitable prediction models (Table 9) were arrived at with R2 of .976 and .982 for MOR and MOE respectively.
3.3 Split specimens
Data for two specimens (SBT 05 and 5Th' 04) were not logged by oversight. MOR and MOE
values were determined for the remaining 54 specimens (Table 10)
Difference between loading with the skin surface in tension or in compression was determined by paired t-test. There was no significant difference in MOR values of the specimens from the base (between SBB of 81.3 N/mm2 and SBT of 86.3 N/mm2) (Table 11). However, when loaded with the skin surface in compression, MOR values of the specimens from the top (STT) (122.1 N/mm2) were significantly higher than when loaded with skin surface in tension (STB) (101.1 N/mm2). Specimens from the top (STT+STB) (111.6 N/mm2) had significantly higher MOR values than that of specimens from the base (SBT+SBB) (83.8 N/mm2).
When specimens were tested with a span of 140 mm, MOR values of specimens with skin surface in compression (125.2 N/mm2) were higher than that of specimens with skin surface in tension (107.4 N/mm2). Even though this was not significant for span of2lO mm (69.8 N/mm2, for skin surface in compression and 64.5 N/mm2 for skin surface in tension) when pooled together (span of 140 mm and 210 mm), loading on the skin surface in compression (SBT+STT) resulted in significantly higher MOR (104.2 N/mm2) than skin surface in tension (SBB+STB) (91.2 N/mm2).
In the case of MOE, position of the cuim (base or top), mode of loading (skin surface in tension or compression) and span (140 mm or 210 mm) did not affect the results significantly.
Wall thickness was highly, negatively correlated with MOR, MOE and density (Table 12). Density was highly correlated with MOR and MOE. Multiple regression analyses showed that MOR and MOE can be predicted from density and wall thickness with a high level of confidence(Table 13).
3.4 Comparisons among long, short and split specimens
The mean MOR and MOE values of long, short and split specimens are given in Table 14.In both MOR and MOE, there is significant difference among each other.
There was a high, positive correlation between MOE of long specimens (RL) and split Specimens from the top (ST) (Table 15).
Table 16 gives the best fitting models arrived at by choosing the equation which had the lowest Furnival index (Furnival, 1961). MOR of long specimens can be predicted from that of split specimens from the base with fair amount of confidence (r2= .604). Level of confidence is not very high (r2= .643) for predicting the MOE of long specimens from split specimens from the culm top.
4. DISCUSSION
It can be seen from figure 7 that, in general, density increased from base to top of the cuims. This is mainly because the amount of fibres increases and the number of vascular bundles decreases from base to top. Wall thickness, however, reduces from base to top. Most researchers take samples from three positions of the whole culm (base, middle and top) and report the average, but mean values may underestimate or overestimate the actual strength potential, depending on the species (see Shukla et al., 1988).
4.1 Round, long specimens
The MOR values of long specimens varied from 54.5 to 81.7 N/mm2 and MOE, from 13,793 to 23,006 N/mm2 (Table 3). Interestingly, the highest MOR of 81.7 N/mm2 was obtained for the specimen which had the lowest diameter, measured at mid-point, (69.7 mm) and the lowest MOR of 54.5 N/mm2 was obtained for the specimen with the highest diameter (97.4 mm). This trend was observed by Espinosa (1930) also. However, the correlation coefficient obtained in this study between MOR and outer diameter (r = -.50) and between MOE and outer diameter (r = .22) is poor (Table 4). This is explainable, because the diameter is not a property of the material itself, and from mechanical principles we know that the E-modulus (MOE) is defined by the material, and not by the shape of the cross section.
Besides, as shown by Arce (1993), the tapering of the culm affects, to a certain degree, the elastic curve of the beam.
Table 5 shows that density and outer diameter of bamboo culm can be used to predict MOR and MOE with high confidence (R2 of .994 and .989 respectively) as the goodness of fit of the experimental data is very high. These predicted values will be applicable to a cuim of 3 m. The values cannot be extrapolated too much as density and diameter vary along the cuim.
4.2 Round, short specimens
The MOR and MOE values of short specimens were much lower compared to that of long specimens (Tables 6 and 14). The coefficients of variation were higher than that of long specimens. When span length is shortened, specimens tend to get crushed even at lower loads (Plate 2, Fig. 8) resulting in lower ultimate strength. Also they will be less elastic resulting in lower MOE. This clearly points out that results obtained from bending tests with short span (in the order of 700 mm) do not reflect the actual potential of bamboo.
The test specimens invariably fail due to crushing or shear even at lower loads. So, the failure is not due to the maximum transverse force. Therefore, testing round bamboo with short span under 3-point loading is not appropriate to be able to evaluate the strength potential of bamboo.
The MOR values decreased from base to top (significantly at p = .05) while MOE increased (though not significantly) (Table 7). This trend has been reported by many workers (Abd. Latif and Mohd. Zin, 1992; Sattar et aL, 1992; Shukia et aL, 1988; Espiloy, 1987; Janssen, 1981; Limaye, 1952).
When load was applied on node, MOR and MOE values were higher than when applied on internode (Table 7), even though the increase was not significant in the case of MOE.
Similar results were reported by Abang Abdulla (1984); Sekhar and Bhartari (1960) and Limaye (1952). Limaye (1952) pointed out that disposition of nodes is the least important factor from a practical point of view. Prawirohatmodjo (1990) found that presence of nodes did not significantly affect bending strength.
Soeprayitno et al. (1990) reported a high correlation between MOR and density. However, Rajput et al. (1992) and, Abd.Latif and Mohd. Zin (1992) reported a poor relationship between MOR and density. This study also indicated a very poor relationship (Table 8).
Shukla et al. (1988) reported a very high correlation between average strength (MOR, MOE) and average external diameter of 11 different species. Sanyal et al. (1988) also indicated such a trend between MOE and outer diameter. However, Espiloy (1987) found a very poor relationship between strength and outer diameter. This study also showed that MOR of Guadua amgustifolia cannot be predicted by outer diameter, even though there was strong, negative relationship between MOE and outer diameter (Table 8).
Espiloy (1987) found significant, negative correlation between wall thickness and MOR for Bambusa. blumeana and between wall thickness and MOE for Gigantochloa levis. Abd.
Latif and Mohd. Zin (1992) found a high, positive correlation between wall thickness and MOR, and a high, negative correlation between wall thickness and MOE. However, this study indicated a poor relationship between wall thickness and strength.
When a multiple regression was run with physical properties, very high R2 values were obtained (Table 9). In the case of MOR, confidence level for prediction is 97.6% (R2 - .976) and for MOE, 98.2% (R2 = .982). These predicted values are applicable for only short lengths of the order of 700 mm. Here, results of specimens from base and top were pooled to arrive at the equation. So, depending on density and outer diameter of bamboo at any point, if the bamboo is to be used in short lengths, MOR and MOE values can be predicted using these equations.
4.3 Split specimens
The mean MOR and MOE values of split specimens from culm top were higher than that of base (Table 10). The increase in MOR was highly significant (p = .01), while in MOE it was not significant (Table 11). Li and Li (1983) also reported that MOR increased from base to top for split specimens. In the case of MOR, this trend is contrary to what was observed in round, short specimens. This makes it clear that bamboo behaves differently in round form and in split form. In split form, it behaves more like solid wood and both MOR and MOE are highly density dependent (Table 12). In contrast, the density dependence of round specimens was poor (Tables 4 and 8).
The mode of loading (whether skin surface in compression or tension) was significant in the case of MOR, when the samples were pooled; however, when the samples were segregated by the span length, only the 140 mm span proved to be significant (Table 11). While testing the specimens with skin surface in tension, the specimens tend to get crushed at the loading point (Plate 2, Fig. 9). Whereas when specimens were tested with skin surface in compression, mode of failure is similar for different thicknesses (Plate 2, Fig. 10). Atrops (1969) got a higher MOR value (142.5 N/mm2) when he loaded the split bamboo on the skin side in compression than in tension (113.4 N/mm ). Espinosa (1930) also reported similar results. This trend has been noticed in this study also (MOR of 104.2 N/mm2 and 91.2 N/mm2 for loading skin surface in compression and tension respectively). However, a reverse trend was reported by Ueda (1980). When we look at the coefficient of variation (CV) values, variation while testing skin surface in compression is consistently lower (Table 10). This points out that it is good to adopt testing split specimens with skin surface in compression. This is in contrast to the suggestion of the Indian Standard (BIS, 1976).
Correlation coefficient value was higher for wall thickness than for density for their relationship with either MOR or MOE (Table 12). Even though the r-values are highly significant, to be able to predict MOR or MOE with high level of confidence, they are less than 0.9 (absolute value). However, in combination, both density and wall thickness were able to predict MOR and MOE with high level of confidence (Table 13). These two factors explain 96.4% of the total variation in MOR and 93.3% of the variation in MOE.
4.4 Comparisons among long, short and split specimens
The ultimate strength and MOE values obtained from the tests using three different types of specimens (round, long; round, short; split) are significantly different from each other (Table 14). In the case of MOR, split specimens yielded the highest values while the short specimens the lowest. In the case of MOE, the long specimens yielded the highest and the short specimens the lowest.
Shukia et al. (1988) compared the results of round, short specimens (span of 700 mm) with that of split specimens of three different species (Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus giganteus and D. hamiltonii) and found that MOR and MOE of split specimens were higher than that of round specimens. Similar results were obtained by Sekhar and Bhartari (1960)for D. strictus from Madhya Pradesh of India. This trend was confirmed in this study also for Guadua.
Atrops (1969) obtained lower MOR for full cuims (with a free span of 3600 mm) than what was obtained for split specimens (span of 300 mm). The test species is not mentioned. This also conforms to the findings of this present study in the case of Guadua.
The importance of testing bamboo in full size was emphasized by Meyer and Ekelund as early as 1924. Their comments are reproduced here:"...... bamboo which must be accepted as it is naturally, should be tested in full sizes and in the same way as it is used in structures; when the shear in a long bamboo beam reaches 450 lb./sq.in. [about 3 N/mm2] the beam simply collapses, thus rendering all the more or less erroneous small scale tests useless except for an academic analysis of the stress distribution." This study also has brought out this fact. If bamboo is to be used as long members, testing bamboo with 700 mm span will yield highly underestimated strength values, as this study has shown. This is because, in short-span testing, the specimens are not subjected to true bending.
As long-span four-point testing is quite cumbersome and most of the laboratories may not have this facility, it would be advantageous if the strength values of long cuims could be predicted from short, clear specimens. The best fitting models show that MOR obtained from tests on split specimens from base, and the MOE obtained from tests on split specimens from top can be used to predict the MOR and MOE of long specimens respectively (Table 16). The level of confidence for predicting, however, is not high ( 60.4% and 64.3% respectively).
As can be seen from Table 16, there is a high correlation between MOR and MOE for split specimens both from base and top of the culm (r-value of .955). This shows that bamboo in split form, unlike in round form, behaves more like wood. Non-destructive testing, like stress grading machines, can be used to determine MOE and this can be used for predicting MOR of split specimens. However, use of bamboo in split form in structural applications is limited.
As this study has shown that density and outer diameter, in combination, can be successfully used in predicting the MOR and MOE of long specimens (R2 values of .994 and .989 respectively), one should opt for this rather than trying to predict it from the strength values of split specimens. The predictability of MOR and MOE of long specimens using density and outer diameter should be verified and confirmed by carrying out tests on long specimens of different bamboo species of large, medium and small diameter. If this could be confirmed, carrying out cumbersome 4-point loading tests with long span can be eliminated. If such confirmation is not forthcoming, unrealistic short span tests on round bamboo should not be carried out, as this study shows.
